Труд в этнической культуре кочевников постсоциализма (на примере бурят, калмыков, тувинцев)

Lyubov B. Chetyrova

doi:10.25178/nit.2018.2.3

Authors

Lyubov B. Chetyrova S. P. Korolev Samara National Research University https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5064-8735

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.25178/nit.2018.2.3

Keywords:

work; labor models; nomads; nomadic culture; Turkic-Mongol peoples; military affairs; empire; pasture cattle breeding; agriculture; shaman; Soviet modernization; Buryats; Kalmyks; Tuvans; economic culture

Abstract

The article analyzes the phenomenon of labor in the culture of three Turkic-Mongol peoples — Buryats, Kalmyks, and Tuvans. The author proves the typological unity of their labor culture. These peoples were unified by the Turkic-Mongolian ethnogenesis, as well as by the common experience of being reformatted as Socialist nations in the course of Soviet modernization.

The key moments in the development of their labor cultures can be outlined in accordance with the stages of their ethnicity formation and their transformation into Socialist nations: the period of the Mongol Empire; accession into the Russian Empire; the Soviet period. Two basic models of labor were competing within the labor history of these ethnic groups: that of a nomadic livestock breeder (and, connectedly, a warrior) and that of an agricultural worker. Finally, the labor model of a sedentary living worker has appeared in the course of Soviet modernization.

The article also considers how the change of labor models and images occurred during the period of social transformations that began in the early 1990s. The economic collapse of the post-Soviet society helped elaborate various survival strategies, including a turn to the archaic in ethnic regions. Such labor strategies include the revival of pasture livestock breeding, the legalization of shamans and healers (medglchi), whose work is recognized as a source of legitimate income.

References

Atanov, N. I. (2010) Transformatsiia khoziaistvennogo uklada mongo-loiazychnykh narodov Iuzhnoi Sibiri [Transformation of Southern Siberia Mongolian–speaking Peoples’ Economic Structure]. In: Globalizatsiia i mongol'skii mir : sb. statei po materialam Mezhdunarodnoi nauchnoi konferentsii, prove-dennoi 15–18 iiulia 2010 g. (v ramkakh IV Zasedaniia General'noi sessii Konventa mongolov mira v Ulan-Ude) [Globalization and the Mongolian World: Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference held on July 15–18, 2010 (within the IV Session of the General Session of the Mongolian Convention in Ulan-Ude] / Ed. by B. V. Bazarov. Ulan-Ude, s.n. 387 p. Pp. 35–39. (In Russ.).

Badmaev, V. N. (2007) Kochevaia kul'tura kak faktor khoziaistvennoi zhizni kalmytskogo etnosa [Nomadic culture as a factor of Kalmyk economic life]. Vestnik Kalmytskogo regional'nogo otdeleniia Rossiiskogo filosofskogo obshchestva, no. 1, pp. 7–12. (In Russ.).

Badmaeva, E. N. (2009) Povolzhskaia kolonizatsionno–meliorativnaia ekspeditsiia v Kalmykii perioda NEPa [The Volga colonization and land improvement expedition in Kalmykia during the NEP]. In: Materialy Mezhdunarodnoi nauchnoi konferentsii «Edinaia Kalmykiia v edinoi Rossii: cherez veka v budushchee», posviashchennoi 400-letiiu dobrovol'nogo vkhozhdeniia kalmytskogo naroda v sostav rossiiskogo gosudarstva (g. Elista, 13–18 sentiabria 2009 g.) [Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference "The United Kalmykia in the Unified Russia: Through the centuries to the Future", dedicated to the 400th anniversary of the voluntary entry of the Kalmyk people into the Russian state (Elista, September 13-18, 2009)] : in 2 vols. / ed. by N. G. Ochirov. Elista, NPP «Dzhangar». Vol. 1. 445 p. Pp. 89–93. (In Russ.).

Badmaeva, T. B. (1992) Neverbal'nye formy obshcheniia v traditsionnom bytu kalmykov [Nonverbal forms of communication in the Kalmyk traditional lifestyle]. In: VI Mezhdunarodnyi kongress mongolovedov. Ulan–Bator, avgust 1992. Doklady rossiiskoi delegatsii [6th International Congress of the Mongolists. Ulan-Bator, August 1992. Presentations of the Russian delegation]. Moscow, Institut vostokovedeniia. Pp. 3–7. (In Russ.).

Bazen, L. (1986) Chelovek i poniatie istorii u tiurkov Tsentral'noi Azii v VIII v. [Man and the concept of history among the Turks of Central Asia in the 8th century]. In: Zarubezhnaia tiurkologiia [Turkic studies abroad] : collected papers / Transl. from Engl., Germ., Fr. / comp. and pref. by S. G. Kliashtornyi. Vol. 1. Drevnie tiurkskie iazyki i literatury. Moscow, Nauka. 383 p. Pp. 345–360. (In Russ.).

Barinova, E. B. (2013) Etnokul'turnye kontakty Kitaia s narodami Tsentral'noi Azii v drevnosti i srednevekov'e [Chinese ethnocultural contacts with the peoples of Central Asia in the ancient times and the Middle Ages]. Moscow, IEA RAN. 419 p. (In Russ.).

Batmaev, M. M. (1993) Kalmyki v XVII–XVIII vekakh. Sobytiia, liudi, byt [Kalmyks in the 17th and 18th centuries. Events, people, everyday life]. Elista, APP «Dzhangar». 382 p. (In Russ.).

Degot'kova, I. (2018) Vlasti dobralis' do samozaniatykh: kak otobrat' dokhody u 20 millionov rossiian [Authorities focus on the self–employed: how to tax revenues of 20 million Russians]. Moskovskii komsomolets, April 1 [online] Available at: http://www.mk.ru/economics/2018/04/01/vlasti-dobralis-do-samozanyatykh-kak-otobrat-dokhody-u-20-millionov-rossiyan.html (access date: 2.04.2018). (In Russ.).

Dargyn–ool, Ch. K. (2006) Problemy modernizatsii Tuvy [Problems of modernization in Tuva]. In: IX Mezhdunarodnyi kongress mongolovedov. Ulan–Bator, 8–12 avgust 2006. Doklady rossiiskikh uchenykh [IX International Congress of Mongolists. Ulan-Bator, August 8–12, 2006. Presentations of Russian researchers]. Moscow, Tovarishchestvo nauchnykh izdanii KMK. 366 p. Pp. 48–54. (In Russ.).

Dashibalov, B. and Rassadin V. (2004) Otkuda vyshli predki mongolov? [Where did the ancestors of Mongols come from?]. Vostochnaia kollektsiia, no. 4 (19), pp. 35–41. (In Russ.).

Dobrenko, E. (2007) Politekonomiia sotsrealizma [The political economy of the socialist realism]. Moscow, Novoe literaturnoe obozrenie. 592 p. (In Russ.).

Drobyshev, Iu. I. (2006) O prirodopol'zovanii rannikh mongolov [On the uses of nature by the early Mongols]. In: IX Mezhdunarodnyi kongress mongolovedov. Ulan–Bator, 8–12 avgust 2006. Doklady rossiiskikh uchenykh [IX International Congress of Mongolists. Ulan-Bator, August 8–12, 2006. Presentations of Russian researchers]. Moscow, Tovarishchestvo nauchnykh izdanii KMK. 366 p. Pp. 54–62. (In Russ.).

Drobyshev, Iu. I. (2014) Chelovek i priroda v kochevykh obshchestvakh Tsentral'noi Azii (III do n. e. — XVI v. n. e.) [Man and nature in the nomadic societies of Central Asia (3rd century BC – 16th century AD]. Moscow, Institut vostokovedeniia RAN. 604 p. (In Russ.).

Drobyshev, Iu. I., Gunin P. D. and Bazha, S. N. (2008) Rol' buddizma kak reguliatora prirodopol'zovaniia na raznykh etapakh sotsial'no-ekonomicheskogo razvitiia Mongolii [Buddhism as the regulator of environmental management at different stages of the socio-economic development of Mongolia]. In: Buddiiskaia kul'tura: istoriia, is-tochnikovedenie, iazykoznanie i iskusstvo: Vtorye Dorzhievskie chteniia [Buddhist Culture: History, Source Studies, Linguistics and Art: 2nd Dorzhiev Readings] / ed. by A. O. Boronoev. St. Petersburg, Sankt–Peterburgskoe vostokovedenie. 368 p. Pp. 121–136. (In Russ.).

Evraziiskii mir: tsennosti, konstanty, samoorganizatsiia [Eurasian world: values, constants, self–organization] (2010) / ed. by Iu. V. Popkov. Novosibirsk, Nonparel'. 449 p. (In Russ.).

Zhanisov, A. T. (2002) Konevodstvo kak odin iz osnovnykh sistemoob-razuiushchikh faktorov zarozhdeniia i razvitiia nomadizma v stepiakh Evrazii [Horse breeding as one of the main system–forming factors of the origin and development of nomadism in the Eurasia steppes]. In: Material'nye i dukhovnye osnovy kalmytskoi gosudarstvennosti v sostave Rossii (k 360-letiiu so dnia rozhdeniia Aiuki-khana): Materialy mezhduna-rodnoi nauchnoi konferentsii [Material and spiritual foundations of the Kalmyk statehood as a part of Russia (for the 360th Anniversary of Ayuki Khan): Proceedings of international conference] : in 2 vols. / ed. by G. M. Borlikov. Elista, KalmGU. Vol. 2. 156 p. Pp. 88–90. (In Russ.).

Kozlova, N. N. (1999) Sotsial'no–istoricheskaia antropologiia [Socio-historical anthropology]. Moscow, Kliuch–S. 192 p. (In Russ.).

Koznova I. (1997) Traditsii i novatsii v povedenii sovremennykh krest'ian [Traditions and innovations in modern peasants’ behavior]. In: Identichnost' i konflikt v postsovetskikh gosudarstvakh [Identity and Conflict in Post-Soviet States] / ed. by M. B. Olkott, V. Tishkova and A. Malashenko. Mocow, Mosk. Tsentr Karnegi. 490 p. Pp. 359–382. (In Russ.).

Kradin, N. N. and Skrynnikova, T. D. (2006) Imperiia Chingis–khana [The empire of Genghis Khan]. Moscow, Vostochnaia literatura. 557 p. (In Russ.).

Kyzlasov, L. R. (1975) Rannie mongoly (k probleme istokov sredne-vekovoi kul'tury) [Early Mongolians: On the issue of the origins of medieval culture]. In: Sibir', Tsentral'naia i Vostochnaia Aziia v srednie veka. Istoriia i kul'tura Vostoka Azii [Siberia, Central and Eastern Asia in the Middle Ages. History and culture of East Asia. Vol. III] / ed. by V. E. Larichev. Novosibirsk, Nauka. Vol. III. 236 p. Pp. 170–177. (In Russ.).

Kyzlasov, L. R. (1984) Istoriia Iuzhnoi Sibiri v srednie veka [History of Southern Siberia in the Middle Ages]. Moscow, Vysshaia shkola. 167 p. (In Russ.).

Kychanov, E. I. (1980) Mongoly v VI — pervoi polovine XII v. [Mongols from the 6th to the first half of the 12th century]. In: Dal'nii Vostok i sosednie territorii v srednie veka [Far East and neighboring territories in the Middle Ages]. / ed. by V. E. Larichev. Novosibirsk, Nauka. 236 p. Pp. 136–148. (In Russ.).

Lamazhaa, Ch. K. (2013) Arkhaizatsiia obshchestva. Tuvinskii fenomen [Archaization of the society: the Tuvan phenomenon]. Moscow, Knizhnyi dom «Librokom». 272 p. (In Russ.)

McNeill, W. (2004) Voskhozhdenie Zapada: Istoriia chelovecheskogo so-obshchestva [The Rise of the West: The history of the human community] / Transl. from Engl. Kiev, Nika–tsentr; Moscow, Starklait. 1063 p. (In Russ.)

Masanov, N. E. (1995) Kochevaia tsivilizatsiia kazakhov (osnovy zhizne-deiatel'nosti nomadnogo obshchestva) [Nomadic civilization of Kazakhs: foundations of the vital activity of a nomadic society)]. Almaty, Sotsinvest; Moscow, Gorizont. 320 p. (In Russ.)

Materialy po istorii drevnikh kochevykh narodov gruppy dunkhu [Sources on the history of the ancient nomadic peoples of the Donghu group] (1984) / Translations of Chinese sources / Ed. by N. Ts. Munkuev; Introduction, translation and commentary by V. S. Taskin. Moscow, Nauka. 486 p. (In Russ.)

Nanzatov, B. Z. (2010) Traditsionnye formy khoziaistvovaniia buriat i osobennosti organizatsii truda kak primer adaptatsii v usloviiakh moderni-zatsionnykh protsessov [Buryat traditional forms of economic management and the distinctions of the work organization as an example of adaptation to the modernization process]. In: Globalizatsiia i mongol'skii mir : sb. statei po materialam Mezhdunarodnoi nauchnoi konferentsii, provedennoi 15–18 iiulia 2010 g. (v ramkakh IV Zasedaniia General'noi sessii Konventa mongolov mira v Ulan-Ude) [Globalization and the Mongolian World: Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference held on July 15–18, 2010 (within the IV Session of the General Session of the Mongolian Convention in Ulan-Ude] / Ed. by B. V. Bazarov. Ulan-Ude. 387 p. Pp. 73–77. (In Russ.)

Otkhodniki [Seasonal workers] (2013) / Pliusnin Iu. M. et al. Moscow, Novyi Khronograf. 376 p. (In Russ.)

Potaev, V. S. (2011) Iz opyta razvitiia mongol'skogo pastbishchnogo zhivotnovodstva [From the experience of the development of Mongolian pasture livestock breeding]. In: Sotrudnichestvo Mongolii i Buriatii (Rossiia) v svete obespecheniia bezopasnosti v ShOS: mat-ly mezhdunar. seminara [Collaboration of Mongolia and Buryatia (Russia) in the light of ensuring security of the SCO: proceedings of the international. workshop] / ed. by Iu. V. Popkov. Ulan-Ude, Izd-vo BNTs SO RAN. 150 p. Pp. 69–77. (In Russ.)

Rakhmanaliev, R. (2009) Imperiia tiurkov: velikaia tsivilizatsiia [Empire of the Turks: the great civilization]. Moscow, RIPOL klassik. 709 p. (In Russ.)

Sodnompilova, M. M. (2002) Ratsional'noe i simvolicheskoe v stroi-tel'noi traditsii buriat [Rational and symbolic in the Buryat construction tradition]. In: VIII Mezhdunarodnyi kongress mongolovedov (Ulan–Bator, 5–12 avgusta 2002 g.) doklady rossiiskoi delegatsii [8th International Congress of Mongolists (Ulan-Bator, August 5–12, 2002), Presentations of the Russian delegation] / ed. by R. B. Rybakov. Moscow, «Gumanitarii» Akademiia gum. issledovanii. 302 p. Pp. 122–128. (In Russ.)

Suseeva, D. A. (2003) Pis'ma khana Aiuki i sego sovremennikov (1714–1724: opyt lingvosotsiologicheskogo issledovaniia [The letters of Ayuka Khan and his contemporariesrs (1714–1724): an attempt at a linguosociological study]. Elista, APP «Dzhan-gar». 456 p. (In Russ.)

Tkachev, V. N. (1986) Karakorum v XIII veke [Karakorum in the 13th century]. In: Mongolica : Pamiati aka-demika Borisa Iakovlevicha Vladimirtsova, 1884–1931 [Mongolica : in the memory of Boris Yakovlevich Vladimirtsov, FRAS, 1884-1931] : collected papers / Editor-in-Board: A. N. Kononov (preface) et al. Moscow, Nauka. 301 p. Pp. 219–231. (In Russ.)

Franke, N. S. (2008) Poriadok trudoustroistva bezrabotnykh na verkh-neudinskoi birzhe truda [The method of employment of the unemployed at the Verkhneudinsky Employment Bureau]. In: Sibirskie chteniia v RGGU. Almanac. Vol. 3. Moscow, RGGU. Pp. 155–160. (In Russ.)

Humphrey, С. (2010) Postsovetskie transformatsii v aziatskoi chasti Rossii (antropologicheskie ocherki) [Post-Soviet transformations in the Asian part of Russia: Essays in anthropology]. Transl. from Engl. Moscow, Natalis. 384 p. (In Russ.)

Chimidov, T. A. (2009) Sistema ispol'zovaniia i mery ukhoda za past-bishchnym polem [System of use and modes of pasture field care]. In: Materialy Mezhdunarodnoi nauchnoi konferentsii «Edi-naia Kalmykiia v edinoi Rossii: cherez veka v budushchee», posviashchennoi 400-letiiu dobrovol'nogo vkhozhdeniia kalmytskogo naroda v sostav rossiiskogo gosudarstva (g. Elista, 13–18 sentiabria, 2009 g.) [Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference "The United Kalmykia in the Unified Russia: Through the centuries to the Future", dedicated to the 400th anniversary of the voluntary entry of the Kalmyk people into the Russian state (Elista, September 13-18, 2009)] : in 2 vol. / ed. by N. G. Ochirov. Elista, NPP «Dzhangar». Vol. 2. 648 p. Pp. 483–487. (In Russ.)

Shubin, V. F. (1953) Zemledelie Mongol'skoi Narodnoi Respubliki [Agriculture of the Mongolian People's Republic]. Moscow, Izd–vo AN SSSR. 347 p. (In Russ.)

Schutz, A. (1988) Struktura povsednevnogo myshleniia [Structure of the everyday thinking]. Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniia, no. 2, pp. 129–137. (In Russ.)

Gardner, G. (2010) Engaging Religions to Shape Worldviews. State of the World 2010: Transforming Cultures: From Consumerism to Sustainability. P. 20–29 [online] Available at: http://blogs.worldwatch.org/transformingcultures/wp-content/uploads/2009/04/Engaging-Religions-to-Shape-Worldviews-Gardner.pdf (access date: 28.02.2018).

Grousset, R. (1970) The Empire of Steppes. A History of Central Asia / Transl. from French by N. Walford. Rutgers University. 687 p.

Humphrey, C. (1983) Karl Marx Collective: economy, society and religion in a Siberian collective farm. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. 516 p.

Lane, G. (2006) Daily life in the Mongol empire. Greenwood Press, West-port, CT. 312 p.

Nierenberg, D. (2007) Meat Output and Consumption Grow. Vital Sings. The Trends That Are Shaping Our Future. P. 24–26 [online] Available at: http://www.worldwatch.org/files/pdf/Vital%20Signs%202007-2008.pdf (access date: 28.02.2018).

Weatherford, J. (2010) The Secret History of Mongol Queens. How the Daughter of Genghis Khan rescued His Empire. New York, Broadway Paper-backs. 318 p.